COMPETENCY K

“Design instructional programs based on learning principles and theories.”

Statement of Competency K

Teaching and librarianship are closely related; for the many years these institutions have existed, library and information professionals have had the opportunity to teach individuals how to effectively use libraries and their collections in acquiring information. The process of teaching users how to use libraries and its resources has come to be known as information literacy instruction (Bopp & Smith, 2011). Information literate individuals are persons who have learned to use information in order to solve problems in their occupations or day-to-day lives. The major components of information literacy instruction include bibliographic instruction, library instruction, and library orientation (Bopp & Smith, 2011). In the last few years, there has been much growth in the area of computing, and this has changed the way we all access and use information. Because of these changes, the need for information literacy instruction has greatly increased. This area now includes instruction in basic computer skills, social networking, blogging, online searching, and the use of digital software (e.g. Adobe Digital Editions and OverDrive) and hardware (e.g. tablets and e-readers).

Awareness of learning principles and theories is particularly important in the provision of information literacy instruction. By understanding the theories on which the practice of teaching is based on, library and information professionals can not only enhance their teaching techniques, but also their instructional materials. Most teaching techniques are also based on various learning theories, so having a good grasp of them enables librarians, as instructors, to effectively respond to the unique needs of their students (users). Learning theories have long been studied, and a number of theories have emerged, the three most prominent of which are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is greatly rooted in psychology, a field of study that involves observing the mind and behaviors of subjects. It is therefore not surprising that behaviorism is based on the principle that learning is evidenced, or manifested, through outward behavioral change. According to behaviorists, learning is demonstrated when learners give a correct response to a specific stimulus or question (Bopp & Smith, 2011). Behaviorists see knowledge as passive and as involuntary responses to external environmental factors (Booth, 2011). Learning is mainly seen as a passive process that involves the continued repetition of behavioral patterns to engrain them. Therefore, behaviorists believe that instruction has little to do with internal factors such as emotion and cognition, and rather that it is more based on creating the right balance between stimulus and response. Many of the ideas of behaviorism were developed through animal experiments; it is through these studies that behavioral conditioning emerged. These studies found that good outcomes could encourage a correct response or desired behavior, just as negative outcomes could discourage incorrect response or undesirable behavior.

Modern, well-controlled, and instructor-focused classrooms are among the most notable results of behaviorism in education. Learners are seen as a kind of information storage device, in which information goes in and responses come out (Bopp & Smith, 2011). According to behaviorists, the main thing that should be focused on in teaching is ensuring desirable and consistent responses, a feat that is achieved by influencing actions with consequences (positive or negative). For behaviorists, practice and repetition are essential; these are followed by testing to demonstrate evidence of learning (Bopp & Smith, 2011). Positive reinforcement for desirable responses, and the presentation of material in an organized manner are important in learning. One of the main drawbacks of behaviorism is that the theory fails to emphasize how knowledge is formed. In behaviorism, discovery, community, and creativity are only loosely factored into the learning process.

Cognitivism

According to cognitivism, learning is observed as a change in cognitive thinking (Booth, 2011). Cognitivism focuses on internal mental processes that alter the manner in which individuals process and understand their surroundings. This model emphasizes information processing or active mental processing; it’s centered on the process of learning. Cognitivists see behavioral changes only as an indicator of the activities occurring inside learners’ minds. Teachers are responsible for organizing and presenting information; learners, on the other hand, construct knowledge structures at the pace that is allowed by their cognitive processing abilities (Booth, 2011). According to cognitivists, individuals build their own meaning of information – however, they still need tasks that enable them to analyze that information. Cognitive teaching has been summarized as (Booth, 2011, p. 52):

capturing and maintaining learner attention
connecting learning materials to existing knowledge and needs
separating content into units and modules
pacing instruction to account for information-processing capacity
promoting metacognitive strategies

By capturing and maintaining the attention of the learners, an educator is able to ensure that students focus on the learning process, and that it remains highly effective. The linking of learning materials to existing knowledge enables learners to digest new information by relating it to things they already know. Separation of information into convenient units reduces the chances of overwhelming learners with the presented information; it also allows for steady progress. Teaching and instruction at an appropriate pace ensures that learners can understand and assimilate the information they are receiving. Metacognitive strategies are also very important in learning; they provide learners with problem-solving skills that are necessary for easy learning.

Constructivism

According to constructivism, knowledge is a constructed entity developed by a learner through the learning process; it is based on the schemata and experiences of individual learners (Booth, 2011). Schemata refers to mental models of how information is organized inside a person’s mind, which are used in order to understand existing knowledge, as well as new knowledge. Constructivism argues that the learning process is greatly influenced by both the individual and the social context. Students make sense of their surroundings by interpreting or comprehending them through personal values, attributes, and perceptions. Unlike other learning theories, constructivism factors elements of social learning and individual agency; individuals create knowledge by making their own context for what they acquire. In constructivism, behavioral change is not necessarily an indicator of learning, rather it considers learning to take place through translation, observation, and imitation (Booth, 2011).

One of the most notable contributions of constructivism is the concept of learner-centered instruction. The main objective of constructivism was to move the emphasis of instruction from instructor to the learner, from passive to active, and from cognition to learning community (Blevins & Inman, 2014). Early constructivists such as John Dewey played a big role in promoting the idea that learning is more of an active state rather than a passive one. Dewey further emphasized that learning was the natural outcome of going through the hardships of daily life (Bopp & Smith, 2011). With this understanding, appropriate instruction should focus on involving learners with relevant and realistic problems in a real, community-based atmosphere (Booth, 2011). In his zone of proximal development theory, Lev Vygotsky, an early constructivist, argued that individuals have varied potential to learn in a particular situation (Booth, 2011). The potential to learn can either be improved or hindered by the instructional environment. The zone of proximal development is defined as the maximum amount of learning by a learner, given that appropriate learning conditions are in place (Booth, 2011). Learning, according to constructivism, is also influenced by different contextual and cognitive factors. Retention and transfer, on the other hand, can be facilitated by presenting information in a manner that enables students to interact with it or apply it in real-life situations.

Application of Learning Theories

One of most the important contributions of the learning theories of instruction is the method of active learning. Studies show that for effective learning to be possible, learners must do more than watch and listen; they must write, read, argue, and be involved in solving problems (Blevins & Inman, 2014). Engaging students in learning is what active learning is all about. As mentioned earlier, behaviorism focuses on observing the behavior of the learner in order to determine if learning is taking place. For behaviorists, active learning involves getting learners to do things like writing, debating, discussing, etc. It is through such activities that learners can demonstrate whether they have learned (behavior change). Constructivism argues that individuals create knowledge by making their own context for the information they acquire. A prominent technique of active learning that is based on the theory of constructivism is problem-based learning. Cognitivism believes that individuals build their own meaning from previous experiences; this theory melds well with the ideas of active learning. However, guidance must be provided to learners in order to prevent the building of new knowledge on flawed understandings. Use of such active learning techniques can facilitate learners to take increased responsibility in their learning.

Motivation

Motivation plays a big role in learning—Abraham Maslow developed his hierarchy of needs theory in the 1940s as an attempt to explain human motivation. According to Maslow, higher mental activity (self-actualization) can only be achieved after particular psychological, safety, emotional, and esteem needs are met (Booth, 2011). In his theory, Maslow argues that human needs are hierarchical and interdependent, and that they are also determined by biological, situational and cultural factors. Psychological, safety, love, and esteem needs are at the bottom of the hierarchy of needs; these are needs that must be met for survival. It is only after these needs are satisfied that a higher level of needs can be pursued—for example, acceptance of facts, creativity, lack of prejudice, etc. Motivation can also be divided into two main types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Booth, 2011).

Intrinsic motivation refers to the innate desire to seek out new challenges or things (Booth, 2011). Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, results from incentives tailored to encourage engagement, especially for individuals with minimal self-desire to seek out new challenges. Extrinsic motivation is where an individual participates in an activity in order to gain a certain outcome (Bopp & Smith, 2011). Although it is unlikely that library and information professionals will encounter many intrinsically motivated users, there is a greater chance for them to meet users with varied motivational levels. Voluntary learning activities such as optional classes or talent courses are more likely to have intrinsically motivated learners. Other areas where intrinsically motivated participants can be found include graduate schools or post-graduate learning institutions. Extrinsically motivated individuals are more likely to be found in involuntary activities; in such events, some type of reward must be provided in order to encourage participation.

Evidence

Evidence 1: LIBR-260A: Booktalks and Book Discussion Group

This assignment was created for LIBR-260A: Programming and Services for Children. The purpose of the assignment was to write a booktalk for a book aimed at 4th-6th graders from a particular genre, and then to create a plan for a book discussion group for that particular book. Additionally, we were tasked with suggesting four additional novels from the same genre that would appeal to this group, and also writing booktalks for them. The genre I chose for this assignment was mystery novels, and the book I chose to center my booktalk and book discussion group around is Three Times Lucky by Sheila Turnage.

I begin the assignment with my booktalk, the purpose of which is to hook potential readers to the book, without giving away too much information about “whodunit”. Next, I discuss the themes of the book, in addition to the following specific details of the book discussion group: school level of participants, maximum level of children for the group, publicity, and format of the program. I split the format of the program into separate parts: 1) introductions and ice breaker activity, 2) book discussion, 3) book related activities, and 4) refreshments and closing.

The introductions and ice breaker activity serve as a way for the participants of the book discussion group to get to know each other. I crafted the ice-breaker activity as a variation of “the name game” in which participants are assigned a different character from Three Times Lucky, and must ask each other questions to figure out who their character is. This activity is based on constructivism, as it acknowledges that learning takes place in a social context. This activity seeks to provide an environment in which learners can start to become comfortable with each other, so that they may proceed to the next stage of the book discussion group.

The book discussion portion is guided by a series of 12 different questions that I crafted about the novel. These questions highlight the theory of active learning because participants are encouraged to learn through discussion of these questions about the book. Additionally, this portion of the program also is based on a constructivist idea of learning, which posits that learning occurs in a social context; in this case the discussion group itself.

The next step of the program, book related activities, are based on the learning theories of cognitivism. For this portion of the book discussion program, I crafted four different activities that the children can participate in. Some of these are craft activities, such as creating a message in a bottle, and designing an alternate book cover for Three Times Lucky. These activities highlight cognitive learning theories because they are highly structured in nature by me (the educator), with detailed steps outlined for participants (the learners) in order to complete them. In this case, I am responsible for organizing the material and instructions for the activities, and the learners must work at their own pace through them to build knowledge. One of the activities, balloon race cars, makes use of extrinsic motivation. At the end of the program, a race of all the balloon cars will be held, and the winner gets to choose a prize. The prize serves as an incentive, which helps to motivate the book discussion group members to participate in the balloon race car activity that may otherwise not be interested in.

Planning, organizing, and running book discussion groups will certainly be part of my future responsibilities as a youth librarian. When such learning activities are crafted with an understanding of learning theories, they become stronger programs that benefit the multifaceted needs of learners. Creating a plan for such a program has helped me to hone my ability to create a meaningful learning experience for participants, and showcases my knowledge of the various learning theories that are influential today.

Evidence 2: LIBR-210- Investigation #2: Library Orientation

This assignment was created for LIBR-210: Reference and Information Services. The purpose of this assignment was to create a meaningful library orientation exercise for a particular group of library users. As Bopp and Smith (2011) note, library orientation is one of the main components of information literacy instruction. The orientation exercise is comprised of ten questions for the user group to answer, and is designed to help them get up to speed in an academic library. In addition to each question crafted for this assignment, a justification of why this question was written is included.

I created this library orientation exercise for SJSU freshmen students who are enrolled in introductory English and Comparative Literature courses. What was important to me in creating this orientation document was to create meaningful tasks for students to complete so they could gain first-hand familiarity and experience working with a variety of library resources. This highlights the theory of active learning because instead of creating rote tasks, I crafted questions which focus on aspects specific to their coursework to encourage a more meaningful orientation experience. Additionally, the learning theories of constructivism were useful in constructing active tasks for students to perform. For example, the tasks and questions I crafted provide students with an opportunity to learn about: the types of information that can be found on the SJSU library catalog, how to retrieve eBooks and scholarly articles, how to use a variety of databases, how to use a citation management tool, and how to critically evaluate resources. These tasks highlight constructivism as the learner takes an active role in knowledge creation through the different tasks of the orientation.

The creation of this library orientation provided me experience in literacy instruction training. This aspect of librarianship is crucial in guiding library users to learn about a variety of reference materials, resources, and tools, and it is important for all library professionals to be proficient in it. I used theories of constructivism and active learning to create meaningful tasks for students to perform, with learning experiences based in real-world problem solving.

Evidence 3: LIBR-271A- Virtual Seminar: Comic Book Legal Defense Fund

This virtual seminar was completed in LIBR-271A: Genres and Topics in Youth Literature: Graphic Novels. For this course, each student was tasked with picking a topic related to graphic novels to explore in-depth. After this investigation, we were in charge of presenting our findings to our classmates in a creative way. Lastly, it was our responsibility to lead the class through a discussion of our particular topic and research.

For my virtual semester, I explored the non-profit organization, Comic Book Legal Defense Fund, which is concerned with defending intellectual freedom and the right to read comics and graphic novels. My Powerpoint presentation explores the role of the organization, in addition to why their work is important and necessary to libraries and librarians. Additionally, the topics of book challenges, banning, and censorship were explored, and an overview of how to handle comic and graphic novel challenges was covered. The purpose of this part of the assignment was to provide my classmates with an overview about the roles of Comic Book Legal Defense Fund. This part of the virtual seminar highlights my use of the learning theories of behaviorism, in which learning is seen as a more passive task. The nature of presentations is quite passive, as learners are expected to absorb the material and topics from it.

The next portion of this assignment is the discussion I lead my classmates in, which is much more active in nature, and highlights active learning and constructivism. First, the format of the discussion group supports the constructivist argument that learning takes place in a social context. I posted a series of questions related to intellectual freedom, the Comics Code, comic censorship, handling book challenges in a library setting, and the role of libraries in these topics. This highlights the theory of active learning, because students were asked to actively participate in discussing and working on the tasks I created. For example, I pose a scenario question for my classmates. I had each person first choose a book from a list of popularly banned comic book titles, then imagine they are working in a public, school, or academic library where the chosen title is challenged by a patron, parent, or organization, and craft a response to that entity. Active learning posits that learning is more meaningful when learners are faced with solving real-world problems. With my scenario question I present a situation that many actual librarians face in their professional lives. Giving my learners a chance to tackle this question in the classroom better prepares them to do so in the professional world of librarianship.

This virtual seminar presentation and group discussion highlights my use of the behaviorist, constructivist, and active learning theories to impart knowledge on my classmates. I use a techniques such as a PowerPoint presentation, and scenario questions to teach my classmates about a particular organization, the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund. While I do not have plans on being a formal instructor in the future, as an aspiring youth librarian I will be expected to craft learning programs for children, parents, and educators. Being able to create meaningful learning experiences for these groups based on the learning theories I have discussed will be an important part of my future profession.

References

Blevins, A. E., & Inman, M. B. (2014). Curriculum-based library instruction. Lanham, MD:

Medical Library Association.

Booth , C. (2011). Reflective teaching, effective learning. Chicago, IL: American Library

Association.

Bopp, R. E., & Smith , L. C. (2011). Reference and information services: An

introduction (4th ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Evidence Files

Click to download the following files:

LIBR-260A Booktalks and Book Discussion Group

LIBR-210 Investigation #2: Library Orientation

LIBR-271A Virtual Seminar- Comic Book Legal Defense Fund presentation