Competency J
“Describe the fundamental concepts of information-seeking behaviors.”
Statement of Competency J
In the library field, there is a substantial amount of research work on information-related behavior; this includes the areas of information seeking, information needs, and the use of information resources. In today’s world, information plays an important role in our personal and professional lives and is seen as a basic resource; this is because it is needed in our day-to-day decision making. Information-seeking behavior is the process of obtaining, using, and applying information (Drake, 2003). It involves a number of actions in which individuals show their information needs by seeking, evaluating, and selecting information that satisfies their needs (Chelton & Cool, 2004). Understanding the information-seeking behaviors of individuals is important, especially when serving students, researchers, and academics, because this group of users often requires specific and up-to-date information. As libraries are among the most widely used places to obtain sources of information, it is important for information professionals to understand the information-seeking behaviors of users in order to help them in seeking and retrieving information that meets their needs. With regard to this, it is essential for librarians to be knowledgeable of the main theories of information-seeking behaviors in order to provide the best possible service to users. Three significant concepts, outlined by Donald O. Case (2008), which are central to these topics are (p. 36):
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An information need is a recognition that your knowledge is inadequate to satisfy a goal that you have.
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Information seeking is a conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge.
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Information behavior encompasses information seeking as well as the totality of other unintentional or passive behaviors (such as glimpsing or encountering information), as well as purposive behaviors that do not involve seeking, such as actively avoiding information.
One of the main issues that library and information professionals face is the disparity between what users request and what they actually need. Often, librarians get requests from users for specific pieces of information, but what they ask for is sometimes not necessarily what they actually need. In such situations, it is up to the librarian to figure out what the user intends to do with the requested information in order to determine the most appropriate information source for the user. By understanding the information needs of users, a librarian is able to better locate the most appropriate information, or can guide the user towards the right sources. Awareness of the information-seeking behaviors theories can help simplify this process, as these theories not only provide ideas on how to assist users in searching for the right information, but they can also enhance the search strategies of library and information professionals.
Information-Seeking Process
Researchers have created information-seeking models in order to develop a theoretical basis for understanding the behaviors and attitudes of information seekers. These models not only provide ideas on information-seeking behavior, but also outline the steps that literate individuals take to acquire and use information. Some of the most prominent models in the field include: Carol Kuhlthau’s information-seeking process (ISP), George Zipf’s principle of least effort, and Brenda Dervin’s sense-making theory. In the field of library and information science, Kuhlthau’s ISP is among the most widely influential models.
According to the findings of her studies, Kuhlthau identified that information seekers go through various stages during complex information-seeking tasks - both in terms of their attitude and their knowledge of the task. In developing her model, Kuhlthau carried out a number of studies, encompassing both field and case focused studies. Her final study was considerably large; it involved studying 385 users from public, academic, and school libraries from 21 different areas (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). Individuals participating in Kuhlthau’s studies were mostly college and high school students tasked with writing a research or term paper. The task of information seeking in these studies was carried out in a number of months, and the assigning of topics to students, in most cases, was done by the researchers. Kuhlthau’s study was quite unique in that it did not only inquire about the participants’ search process, but also about their emotional state when seeking information (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). According to her study findings, Kuhlthau concluded that there were common emotional patterns, as well as a common information access process that information seekers went through (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). Kuhlthau used these findings to divide the information-seeking process into six stages; these include initiation, selection, exploration, formulation, collection, and presentation (Chelton & Cool, 2004).
The first stage of the information-seeking process is initiation. This is where an individual identifies his or her need for information. In this stage, information searches involve acquiring general background knowledge. Individuals tend to have feelings of apprehension and uncertainty when they realize they lack understanding in regards to their own knowledge. The minds of individuals at this stage mainly focus on trying to understand the problem and attempting to link it to their previous experiences.
Selection involves identifying and selecting the topic of discussion. The thoughts of searchers at this stage are general and undifferentiated; they mainly focus on the time factor, the requirements of the information need, and the approach that will provide the best result. Feelings of optimism generally replace the uncertainty from the initiation stage.
In exploration, the task involves exploring the information on the overall topic so as to enhance understanding. During this stage, the failure of users to define what information they require lowers their ability to formulate searches and to evaluate the relevance of retrieved information. The information acquired at this stage often fails to match up with a searchers’ knowledge; information from other sources may seem conflicting and inappropriate. Feelings of doubt, confusion, and uncertainty characterize this stage (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). Information seekers may feel inadequate or discouraged, and they may also get frustrated with the system that provides the information.
The information seeking process changes in the formulation stage. During this stage, searchers’ perspective on the topic become more focused, which in turn eliminates the issue of conflicting information. The task during this stage may involve confirming a hypothesis set by the information seeker. The feelings of searchers also change during the formulation stage—they become more confident, and their uncertainty is reduced.
At the collection stage, the search system becomes more useful for information seekers; this is because the task at this stage is to collect information concerning the focused topic. Searches are centered on acquiring information to define, broaden, and support the focus (Chelton & Cool, 2004). Accuracy with regards to evaluating the relevance of information increases, and the confidence of information seekers also rises.
Presentation is the final stage of the information seeking process. In this stage, searchers carry out the final searches in their information finding. These searches may return information that the searcher already knows, or information that is redundant or of little relevance. At this stage, information seekers may feel satisfied or disappointed; this all depends on the success of their search.
Kuhlthau’s ISP model attempts to describe the experiences of users as a series of feelings, thoughts, and actions (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). The thoughts of information seekers evolve from vague to clearer, and feelings progress from uncertain to confident as the information-seeking process progresses. It is important for library and information professionals to understand these stages in order to best assist users through them, and to find the most appropriate information for users based on their position in the information seeking process.
Sense-Making Theory
Brenda Dervin’s sense-making theory is another one of the prominent models of information-seeking behavior. The sense-making theory claims that over time, humans reach a point where they experience a cognitive gap, which is a situation that raises a need for information (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). For progress to continue, this gap must be filled through the acquisition of new information. According to Dervin’s model, the goal of every information-seeking behavior is to make sense of a particular situation.
The quest for information, and its subsequent use, takes place when individuals are unable to progress through a given circumstance without forming some kind of sense about the situation. This process, according to Dervin, has three elements: the situation, gap, and use (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). The need for information is created by the situation. The gap, on the other hand, is the information that an individual is attempting to acquire. Once an individual acquires the information (or parts of the information) that is required, it can then be used. As the situation is part of the information-seeking behavior, information seeking will change as the situation changes (i.e., as the information is acquired). In a way, sense-making can be seen as all the strategies individuals use with information to handle or overcome problems.
Dervin’s sense-making model plays an important role in reference services; neutral questioning techniques used by reference librarians are derived from this model. Neutral questioning, a strategy for query negotiation, is employed by librarians when conducting reference interviews in order to understand queries from the users’ perspective (Chelton & Cool, 2004). Neutral questions are used during reference interviews to help understand how the user sees their situation, to identify any gaps in their information, and determine the kind of help needed by the user. The purpose of these questions is to avoid making assumptions about a user’s information needs and to find the information actually required by the user. Information professionals can use neutral questioning during the reference interview to present to users a nonjudgmental and professional demeanor which can help to put users at ease and to connect them to the information they need.
Principle of Least Effort
According to research on information-seeking behaviors, individuals tend to select information sources depending on how they perceive their accessibility. Accessibility is all about availability, convenience, ease of use, and familiarity (Case, 2008). A number of theories on user behavior acknowledge that users choose information sources, both formal and informal, based on the principle of least effort (Case, 2008). This principle states that individuals prefer using information sources that are accessible, convenient, and physically close so as to reduce their effort when acquiring information (Case, 2008).
The principle of least effort was developed by George Zipf in 1949 (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). This principle can be observed in many areas of life and it is not limited to information-seeking behavior. In his definition, Zipf claims that human beings tend to solve problems in a manner that reduces their amount of work. The principle of least effort can be defined as the least possible work that individuals undertake for their course of action. One of the main assumptions of this principle is that the use of an information channel depends on user awareness. This assumption can be seen in users’ library use behavior; for instance, individuals tend to be habitual about some information sources. According to studies, when users become aware of an information source and its contents, the use of said information source tends to increase (Case, 2008). As a result, individuals have a tendency to favor information sources that they have previously used, rather than search and use new sources. For example, it is often difficult to convince students to use sources of information other than Google for research.
Although the principle of least effort has been utilized in many areas, it is particularly applicable to libraries and information settings, especially in understanding the decreased popularity of libraries and library collections. Most users perceive some library collections as requiring too much work, especially when compared to the option of using the Internet, which is perceived as being simpler (Case, 2008). Many library and information professionals, on the other hand, emphasize the need for more thorough searches for information, which most users find taxing and frustrating. Zipf notes that individuals tend to spend more time and energy on tasks that really matter, but behaving in such a way all the time would be difficult; as a result, people tend to reduce the effort needed to acquire information. The principle of least effort, therefore, predicts that information seekers will generally reduce the effort needed to get information, even if it means lowering the quality of information.
Understanding the principle of least effort can help a librarian learn about a users’ prior experiences with resources and guide them to new or more suitable sources. The librarian should, however, be aware that users may resist using new materials since they are used to or satisfied with information sources they already have familiarity with.
Evidence
Evidence 1: LIBR-202- Exercise #1: Querying Information Retrieval Systems
This assignment was created for LIBR-202: Information Retrieval. This exercise provided a hands-on experience with three information retrieval and management systems– Google Scholar, Library Literature & Information Science Full Text (H.W. Wilson), and RefWorks. This exercise demonstrated the use of principles of query formation by using the query languages specific to each system in order to form ten queries surrounding a topic of my choice. In order to show success with query formation we had to obtain 5 articles from each system, in addition to exporting the citations for each of these articles to RefWorks, and provide screenshots to highlight success with these tasks.
In addition to query formation and learning about the specific requirements of query language for each system, each system was evaluated by reflecting on the information-seeking processes I employed with each system. This assignment highlights my personal progress through the information-seeking process, and discusses several of the information-seeking behaviors that I employed when querying each system. For example, I began my first queries in the information retrieval system, GoogleScholar. In the assignment, I note, “I approached GoogleScholar first because, like most people, I use Google multiple times a day for other IR services so the format was familiar and less intimidating for me to approach.” This highlights Zipf’s principle of least effort, because as an information seeker, I first approached a source I was already semi-familiar with.
My information seeking behaviors while querying the system also highlight my progression through the information seeking process. For example, I note that while querying GoogleScholar, “I started with my first query, ‘digital literacy’, a broad area of my topic and immediately got 242,000 results, too many to work with. I then continued my searches to try to narrow my topic wording in order to also narrow my results…I included more search terms related to my topic and my results decreased to 11,900, which was still too many but a big decrease from my first query. I realized after all my searching that this cycle of searching and feedback by changing search queries is what ultimately helped me to come up with better search terms and better combinations of search terms to narrow down the amount of articles that I had to go through.” This highlights my progression through several stages of Kuhlthau’s information seeking process – I begin the process by selecting my topic, then explore it through querying an information retrieval system (GoogleScholar), and finally I formulate and reformulate my searches to become more focused in order to yield better results. Being able to identify a users’ position in the information-seeking process is important for library professionals. This exercise highlights my ability to identify my own progression through these stages. I will use these skills in my future professional career to help identify and guide users through the information-seeking stages to help meet their information needs.
Evidence 2: LIBR-202- Project #1: Designing an Information Retrieval System
This project, designed for LIBR-202: Information Retrieval, is a twofold articulation of a collection of objects and a description of the users who could benefit from a database built from this collection. In the first part of the project, a theoretical discussion about the ideas of classification, systems of classification, and standards, is presented with relevant citations from course readings. A collection of objects (in this case, nail polish) was chosen and described, in addition to a listing of specific attributes of that collection. The first part of the project combines all of the aforementioned work into a chart which describes the individual objects of the collection in terms of the characteristics of each attribute.
The second part of the project is a description of the group of people who would benefit from a database comprised of this collection of objects and a discussion of the specific information needs of this group. This part of the assignment begins with a theoretical discussion of the relationship between information retrieval systems, human cognition, information needs, and information seeking in the design of information retrieval systems, and cites the work of scholars including Carol Kuhlthau and Gary Marchionini. The next part is a list of potential questions that individuals from this group would pose, and a discussion of what attributes of the collection are needed to serve the user or to serve the design of the database. Specifically, I set out to design this database based on the information-seeking behaviors of the users who would benefit from it. Based on the information needs and information-seeking habits of users, I included in the database information such as: brand, price, collection, country of manufacture, and color. By identifying the information needs and behaviors of potential users, I designed this database to increase findability of information to users by taking into account their progress in the information-seeking process. Anticipating user information needs and behaviors, and understanding the stages of the information-seeking process helped me to design an IRS that is more useful to users.
Evidence 3: LIBR-210- Exercise #3
This exercise assignment was completed for LIBR-210: Reference and Information Services. During this course, students completed three question-answering assignments; this evidence is the work I completed for the 3nd exercise. The format of the assignment is quite simple in nature – students receive a set of 10 reference questions, and are expected to answer them from the perspective of a reference librarian. For each question, a response to the library user is crafted, using the principles of reference interview as a guide. Additionally, an explanation of the process used to find the answer is also included for the professor of this course. It is important to note that these questions are not always straightforward, or even necessarily clear in nature. I used the format of the reference interview to guide my question answering process. For example, even though this interaction is virtual in nature, I always opened with a friendly greeting to convey approachability and interest in the users question. Additionally, I made sure to ask both open- and closed-ended questions in order to clarify the user’s information need, and restated the question in my own terms in order to reach mutual understanding.
As noted earlier, it is especially important to identify and understand the information-seeking behaviors of students, researchers, and academics. This assignment provided me with first-hand experience in assisting such users who are progressing through the information-seeking process. For example, some of the questions posed by these imaginary students or researchers indicate they are in the beginning stages of the ISP. In question 4 of the assignment, a freshman user requires help on researching a particular topic. Instead of only providing links to specific materials to the user, I suggest search strategies to guide them through the stages of the information-seeking process, so that they can better meet their information needs. In question 7, the student uses vague wording in their question, so I use the reference interview technique to pose questions to the user to guide them through the beginning stages of the information-seeking process which deal with identifying and focusing the information need.
The reference task of question answering is just one way that I, as a future information professional, will interact with users who will be in varying stages of the information-seeking process. Being able to identify where users are at in this process allows me to better help them through the stages, and to help them get to the root of their information need. Using techniques such as the reference interview is just one such way that librarians can help guide users through the ISP. This exercise provided me with hands-on experience in identifying the stage of the ISP the user is in, guiding the user through the ISP, and ultimately connecting them with materials, resources, and strategies required to meet their information needs.
Evidence 4: LIBR-210- Investigation #1: Bibliography
This assignment was created for LIBR-210: Reference and Information Services. The purpose of the assignment was to construct a bibliography of 25 reliable and quality sources for an undergraduate or gradate course of our choice. The sources had to include a combination of print and electronic resources including: books, essay collections, databases, articles, and webpages. Additionally, we had to provide relevant Library of Congress classification subject headings that could be used by students in the courses. Lastly, a write up about the justification of the sources that I included in this bibliography is included. I created this particular bibliography for a SJSU undergraduate Women’s Studies course. In particular, this course has a focus on women of color, so I had to curate appropriate and quality sources related to this topic. Before looking for sources, I first carefully read the course syllabus to get an understanding of the types of topics that would be covered, and the objective of the course. Topics of race, class, gender, sexuality, feminism, discrimination, oppression, and marginalization, in addition to different racial and ethnic groups help guide my searches, both in looking for subject headings and as keywords.
The creation of this bibliography provided me with the experience of anticipating the information needs and behaviors of undergraduate students enrolled in this course. Referring to Zipf’s principle of least effort, I understood that most students would only be familiar with popular information retrieval systems, such as Google. As such, I provided examples of several other databases that may be useful to students in this class that they may have not considered or encountered before. Because the topic of the course is also quite broad, I had to carefully evaluate the course syllabus in order to anticipate the information needs of users. To meet these needs through the bibliography, I provide examples of materials and resources about a variety of topics including race, ethnicity, gender, class, and sexuality. For example, I include resources on Native American, Latina, Asian-American, and African-American women in the “Print Resources and eBooks” section. Understanding user information needs, behaviors, and the information-seeking process is important, as these topics permeate the way that library professionals connect users to information. As a future librarian, being able to anticipate user information needs and behaviors is important in formulating the way I will help users satisfy their needs.
References
Case, D. O. (2008). Chapter 4: Information seeking. In K. Haycock, & B. E. Sheldon (Eds.), The
portable MLIS: Insights from the experts (pp. 35-41). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.
Chelton, M. K., & Cool, C. (2004). Youth information-seeking behavior: Theories, models, and
issues. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
Drake, M. A. (2003). Encyclopedia of library and information science. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press.
Fisher, K. E., Erdelez, S., & McKechnie, L. (2005). Theories of information behavior. Medford,
NJ: Information Today Inc.
Evidence Files
Click to download the following files:
LIBR-202 Exercise #1: Querying Information Retrieval Systems
LIBR-202 Project #1 Designing an Information Retrieval System